FEBRUARY 2005 - ISSUE 4 - ISSN 1448 - 632

DEPICTING MARY AS A HOLY SIGNIFIER OF FULLNESS: A THEOLOGICAL-AESTHETIC APPROACH

 

FATIMA L. CARVALHO

 

Abstract

Over the last two thousand years, representations of Mary in sacred and popular art have universalised and over-coded her image. Given to her over-codification Mary becomes a special signifier – an empty signifier [1] in terms of a discourse theory perspective. This emptying of what we understand in various ways as the mother of Jesus, the virgin, the daughter, the queen, the leader, the patron, the path towards Jesus, a goddess, a mere human being, etc. could be explained in terms of the sliding of signifieds, i.e., images, connotations attributed to Mary under the signifier ‘Mary’. This sliding process had been instrumental to the emptying of the signifier ‘Mary’. From her initial representations in the Third Century to contemporary conceptions, Mary came to mean everything and nothing. Aesthetic representations Mary have been freed from any precise content and, as a universal image, Mary came to symbolise an imaginary fullness, or the lack of it, fulfilled by her perfect love, patience, compassion, humbleness, generosity, etc. In this paper I concentrate on selected images of Mary and correlate sliding of signifieds attributed to Mary along the history of sacred art to struggles around her meaning for women in today’s church.

Methodology

Along its seven sections [A] this work develops an analysis of images of Virgin Mary taken from various artistic and historical backgrounds. This study starts with stereotyped images of Mary in the era of mass reproducibility. The latter are discussed in connection to the Protestant critique to the validity of certain meanings attributed to Mary, which do not appear to be taught in Holy Scripture. A second section turns to Orthodox Church icons and depictions of Mary in the Antiquity and Middle-Ages. This is followed by depictions of Mary in the tradition of Orthodox Christian art as an act of worship. Section four discusses images of Mary-like-Christ in early Christianity followed by section five where images of Mary in the Renaissance are contrasted to earlier sexually ambiguous representations. Section six scrutinizes national representations of Mary in the New World, followed by section seven, which focuses on apparitions of Mary in 19^th Century European contexts.

Stereotyped Images of Mary

Representations of Mary in the bible and other literature may provide important clues of the sliding signifieds under the signifier ‘Mary’. Stories by Luke, for example, who are the most fair to women among all the evangelists (Moloney, 1981:39), portray Mary as the first disciple. Luke perceived Mary as a significant role model for all of us. As Francis Maloney (1981) asserts in his work ‘Women in the New Testament’, Mary the Mother of Jesus dominates Luke’s account and Joseph assumes a secondary position remaining in the background. Between the evangelists, Luke is the one to focus on the role of women in the public life of Jesus. In Luke 1-2, Mary is pictured as a leader and plays a key role in the scenes from the infancy narrative. In Maloney’s opinion, we can be thankful that Luke’s witness to the annunciation (Luke 1:26-38) stands as a corrective for unbiblical images of Mary.

A close reading of the Gospels, most specifically in Luke, may reveal a crucial imagery of Mary, presented not as a goddess, nor a stiff statue, nor a plastic figurine molded with a sugary and innocent look as the contemporary images produced for mass consumption. Here we have three examples of kitsch [2] images of an objectified Mary:

In this first illustration of Sacred Heart of Mary: the Mother of God is a stereotype, Doll-like. Mary points to her heart instead of pointing to Jesus, as she used to do in the tradition of the Orthodox Church of the Middle Ages. Connotations associated to Mary in the liturgical art of the icon are far removed in this modern graphic representation where Mary’s left hand is blessing us as Jesus would do. Her gaze is lost: neither looking at us, to heaven or at Jesus

Figure 1

In this second representation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, the mother of Jesus is again self-centred. Mary re-signifies the meaning of her love towards humanity by comparing her heart to the natural beauty of a rose. With her extremely delicate hands, Mary holds a bunch of flowers as way of adding meaning or doubling her loving capacity. Mary looks slightly above her eye line, which places her as an inspiration for women, yet she floats beyond humanity.

Figure 2

In this third and last image produced for mass consumption - Madonna of the Street, Mary is represented as an ordinary woman, protected from the weather, whilst taking her baby home. Mary is serene and directs her gaze at heaven. Under the holy protection of her mother, the baby sleeps as if it was in heaven. There is no direct interaction between Mary and the viewer who is given this symbolic image to reflect upon.

Figure 3

Dissonant from her representations by the mass industry today, Luke’s Mary is a genuine example of faith acted out in discipleship and in response to God’s word. In Luke, Mary is depicted as the most wonderful of all believers, a model of faith. Mary is imaged by Luke as, not only the mother of Jesus but as the mother of all who take the risk of hearing the word of God and acting on it.

From the perspective of a Protestant critique no discourse of Catholic practice advances far without pending to the topic of the Virgin Mary. Former Protestant evangelical, Thomas Howard (1997: 179-180) argues that there is no topic, not the papacy, or the Mass itself, that arouses greater concern among non-Catholics. Protestants have the greatest difficulty understanding or showing sympathy for the doctrines and images of Mary that Catholics teach – that Mary herself, and not only her son, was born and lived without sin "The Immaculate Conception". That Mary remained a virgin all her life, "The Perpetual Virginity"; and that shortly after she died her body was raised, reunited with her soul, and then she was taken bodily to heaven -"The Assumption of Mary".

In the above image, Mary is represented Jesus like. Not a white or light blue robe but a pink garment with a dark blue mantle. Ascended into heaven Mary looks and gives her blessing with her right hand	Figure 4

In the above representation, Mary is literally in heaven throwing light to those on Earth. Mary’s crown denotes the highest position a woman can achieve- heaven and royalty. As always, Mary is barefoot - a sign of her simplicity and meekness that is the very source of her heavenly power. With both her feet Mary controls a couple of snakes- metaphorical representations for sin and darkness in the world which struggles below.

Figure 5

Looking at all the imagery produced around the human mother of Jesus, Protestants question the validity of such meanings attributed to Mary since they do not appear to be taught in Holy Scripture. Protestants contend that Mary herself, like all the elect, was a sinner saved by grace in the same way that all sinners must be saved. According to a Protestant exegesis one cannot justify saying prayers to Mary, a mere human being who is mentioned only a few times in the Gospels after the accounts of Jesus’ birth. Mary is never mentioned again after Acts 1, where one reads that she was together with the Apostles in the Upper Room in Jerusalem after the Lord's Resurrection. Paul never mentions Mary, neither does Peter mention the mother of Jesus. For Protestants there is nothing in the Bible about her occupying any special place in the life of Christians.

From a Roman Catholic angle, a devotional approach to Mary emerges from the universal teaching and practice of the ancient church known as "the unanimous consent of the fathers" [3] Roman Catholic doctrine of tradition becomes a source of Christian doctrine and practice alongside the Bible. In Catholic tradition, doctrine was handed down to the church not only in the Bible, but also in the teaching of the Apostles handed down through the bishops of the church.

Mary and the conventions of the Orthodox Church iconography

Almost two thousand years before the emergence of an image of Mary for mass consumption, icons were set out to transmit a different kind of life. Most icons show a way of seeing, invite us onto a little journey within the picture. Through lines, colour, and movements, religious icons involving Mary and the baby Jesus seem to have one simple message to get across: show how God acts in us. Invariably, Mary facing us stands for the divine gaze. In an interesting ancient image of the first days of Christianity, Mary has been depicted in a standing position, priest like, with her hands in prayer. Jesus would appear on her breast inside a medallion. The Mother of God icon Zna'menie ("The Sign"), an 18th century icon from the Orthodox Church museum in Kuopio reproduces an original icon from the middle age that resides in the Sofia Cathedral in Novgorod. The same image was been portrayed in by the ‘orans’ figure from the first days of Christianity, which is one of the first daring attempts at representing the mother of God where explicit Christian pictures were not yet accepted. Christians have imagined the Church in the form of a woman (Rowan Williams, 2002: 42-4). A woman praying with hands extended and head covered as an allusion to the Christian community as Christ’s bride. No other image but Mary would be the most suited to represent the whole believing community.

In the above representation, Mary is literally in heaven throwing light to those on Earth. Mary's crown denotes the highest position a woman can achieve- heaven and royalty. As always, Mary is barefoot - a sign of her simplicity and meekness that is the very source of her heavenly power. With both her feet Mary controls a couple of snakes- metaphorical representations for sin and darkness in the world which struggles below.

Figure 6

http://www.ocf.org/OrthodoxPage/icons/data/Sign.gif 

Christ prays in Mary who becomes a sign of God in virtue of the action of Christ in her. The word expands and develops silently in Mary’s body reminding the public of where and what the Church’s essential life is. Mary, as the personification of the Church becomes the divine humanity of Christ. In her human nature, Mary is restored and transfigured by the presence of the divine energy in her breast.

 A second iconic representation of Mary is The Hodegetria, painted in the Middle-Ages. In this image Mary cradles the Christ child, who sits in his mother’s left arm. Mary points to him with her right hand, and is the one who points the way. A key movement: initiated by the gesture of the Virgin towards the child (Rowan Williams, 2002: 1-18) Mary is who she is by pointing away from herself. Her identity leads us to Jesus- a path towards Jesus.

In the above representation, Mary is literally in heaven throwing light to those on Earth. Mary's crown denotes the highest position a woman can achieve- heaven and royalty. As always, Mary is barefoot - a sign of her simplicity and meekness that is the very source of her heavenly power. With both her feet Mary controls a couple of snakes- metaphorical representations for sin and darkness in the world which struggles below.

Figure 7

The Hodegetria . Source: Rowan Williams, 2002: 1

Defining a relation, Mary’s eyes are turned toward us and she addresses us with them. She is introducing her son. She urges us not to keep our eyes on her face and begs us to be diverted to him. Jesus is at the centre of the icon. As an isolated figure, Jesus is engaged toward humanity, with his attention directed to someone else. Our eyes are drawn to the central figure, we are led to scrutinise his posture and look as his right hand blesses his mother.

The icon ‘The Eleousa’, from the 12th Century, reproduces an imagery suggested in Song of Songs (2:6). The Child Christ still looks like a miniature man but here he embraces Mary cheek to cheek. Jesus’ arms encircle Mary’s neck and he is virtually climbing up against her body with great energy. His right hand grasps the bend of her veil. This image connotes divine urgency. Christ’s eyes are fixed on Mary whose own eyes look out at us. The Eleousa is set up to show the intensity of Mary and Jesus, their love and his divine hunger. Mary is there to show Jesus love as that of an eager child, who in his mercy does not wait for our initiative in repentance. Jesus/God makes a move towards Mary as he would do with us. The message in this icon is that God does not stand distant, waiting for us to make a move in his direction. Mary represents us as the subject of Jesus’ love.

Figure 8

The Eleousa. Source: Rowan Williams, 2002: 20

In this fourth Byzantine icon ‘The Virgin Mary and Child’, we can observe a combination between Jesus, showing the urgency of his love to Mary, and the circular gaze dynamics in which Mary looks at us, pointing to her child. Jesus looks at Mary and we look at him.	Figure 9

Source: http://www.sacredicons.com/virginandchild.html

In the above Byzantine icon, which portrays St. Anna and the Virgin Mary, Mary assumes the place of Jesus in her mother’s arms. The child Mary embraces St. Anna cheek to cheek, she holds a Lily, which symbolises her beauty and innocence.	Figure 10

Source: http://www.sacredicons.com.html

In this Byzantine icon ‘The Theotokos’: we have a variant of the message - the Lord does not wait. Divine hunger is again depicted. The Child Christ embraces Mary cheek to cheek in the same way as St. Anna and the child Mary did in the previous icon example. Jesus arms encircle his mothers’ neck. Mary directs her gaze at us whilst Jesus looks at his mother	Figure 11

Source: http://www.ocf.org/OrthodoxPage/icons/theotokos_in.html

Here in the icon of ‘Mary and Baby Jesus’, a Russian image from the early 20th Century, Mary acquires a stylised contemporary face, typical of Orthodox Eastern Christianity, yet highly marked by photographic conventions. Jesus stands as a miniature man looking at us whilst blessing his mother. Mary assumes an innocent, sweetened, doll-like face, typical of a kitsch religious imagery that will multiply in the 20th Century.

Figure 12