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In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus posed a question that has impelled the work of biblical scholars during the past centuries – “Who do people say that I am?” (Mark 8:27). Mark recorded the disciples’ replies to Jesus’ question, answers that reflected the depth and differing understandings of the man who stood among them. Jesus listened to their answers and then rephrased the question in order to engage with them personally; “But who do you say I am?” (Mark 8:29). Theologians over the years have sought to answer Jesus’ question through an analysis of scripture, sociology and church tradition in the quest to present an accurate picture of who was the man known as Jesus the Christ. Although few indisputable facts can be established in regard to actual events in the life of Jesus, modern christologies have sought to interpret the memory and tradition of Jesus in order to understand the man who, from humble beginnings, has been the catalyst for the Christian movement over the past two centuries.
Indisputable facts about the life of the first century Palestinian man known as Jesus are difficult to surmise, even in the light of recent advances in the fields of archaeology and science. Primary evidence and sources for a biography of Jesus are often restricted to recordings made by first century authors such as Josephus, fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls and the writings of the early Church after the death of Jesus. The main source of information on the life of Jesus therefore comes from the Gospels themselves. An analysis of this early Christian material yields a sparse biography of Jesus life. E.P Sanders, in works such as The Historical Jesus and Jesus and Judaism, identified major events surrounding Jesus’ life that can exist as a background to a study of the historical Jesus. Evidence derived from the canonical gospels is supported by limited extant writings by authors such as Josephus. These writings support a partial listing of events in Jesus’ life and career that included the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, the calling of disciples who ministered with Jesus, a controversy with the Temple, and Jesus’ crucifixion by Roman authorities (1). Factual or historical information on the person of Jesus Christ is therefore limited. As Regina Coll concludes;
“What we have in the gospels is not a transcript of what happened, not a biography of Jesus, but faith statements of the early community. When we read the gospels we are reading about what different communities thought of Jesus. Each of the gospels has a unique perspective, each contributes to the whole picture which we in the twentieth century construct”. (2)
The picture we are left with thus reflects the transmitted memory of Jesus Christ rather than the reality of the man Jesus who lived in Palestine at the beginning of the first century.
The Quest for the Historical Jesus
The quest to present
an accurate portrait of the historical Jesus began with German
scholars such as Reimarus in the second half of the eighteenth
century. Reimarus challenged traditional viewpoints by
depicting Jesus as a political revolutionary whose goal to create
a new political kingdom on earth ultimately failed (3).
Following in the footsteps of Reimarus were scholars such as
Strauss, Wrede and, a century after Reimarus, Albert Schweitzer.
Strauss accepted a core of historical events in the life of Jesus
that could be traced through the gospels, but emphasized more
the role of Christ as symbol of a unity between divine and human
elements (4).
Wrede also presented a view of Christ that was based on gospels
as faith documents rather than historical sources (5).
The arguments outlined by these early theologians were brought
to a conclusion by Schweitzer with the question of whether an
accurate portrait of the historical Jesus would ever be achieved
left unanswered.
Theologians such as Rudolf Bultmann initiated a second wave of biblical scholarship, or New Quest. Bultmann expanded Wrede’s thesis that the gospels are faith documents that place historical accuracy second to the theological message (6). He concluded that a search for the historical Jesus “betrayed a lack of Christian faith since we are saved by faith alone” (7). His former student, Kasemann, who argued that searching for the historical Jesus was justifiable, achievable and needed in modern theology, challenged Bultmann’s assertions. Supporting Kasemann and other scholars in the new quest were advancements in areas such as methods of historical enquiry, which allowed scholars the opportunity to more accurately present historical evidence on the person of Jesus Christ (8).
Jesus Christ in contemporary society
Emerging christologies of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have challenged the relevance of these more traditional images of Christ for today’s Christians. Contemporary analysis by movements within theology, such as Feminist Liberationist christologies, have demonstrated an ability to actively engage with the memory and traditions of the person known as Christ in order to re-interpret his message for the globalised community of today. Feminist scholars have actively sought to transform traditional images of Christ for contemporary society. By engaging with the memory of Jesus, searching the tradition surrounding images of Christ, and offering viewpoints of Jesus’ role in today’s world, feminist scholars have continued to present relevant interpretations of who Christ can be to Christians today. Through the tools of analysis and interpretation Feminist Liberation Christology therefore offers a way of connecting with Jesus the Christ that is both relevant and meaningful to Christians in contemporary society.
Feminist dialogue with the memory of Christ
Engaging with the memory of Christ involves identifying with his life and mission, his death, and, ultimately, his resurrection. Feminist Liberation Christology, in common with other liberation theologies, identifies with the image of Christ as liberator. Throughout his life and teaching Jesus demonstrated his concern for people on the margins of society. The gospels recount incidents where Jesus personally engaged with those who were considered impure, or outside of society’s favour (9). The table-fellowship created by Jesus welcomed the devalued in society, the tax collectors, sinners, and even prostitutes (10). Thus, through the gospel writings, Jesus’ desire to liberate people from sin, suffering and poverty is revealed. The image of Christ as liberator is therefore actively engaged through a feminist dialogue with the living memory of Jesus Christ.
First century Palestinian society was characterized by patriarchal systems that defined the status of women as below that of men. Contemporary scholars have interpreted events in the gospels involving Jesus and women, as well as the naming of God as Abba/Father, to surmise that Jesus’ message was one that went against patriarchal structures that existed in the society of the time. Evidence for recent scholars such as Elizabeth Johnson, Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, and Marcus Borg have outlined these interpretations. As a basis for creative dialogue scholars analysed gospel passages to identify Jesus’ possible attitude to women and patriarchal society. An example can be found in the gospel of Matthew where Jesus instructs the crowds and his disciples to;
“call no one your father on earth, for you have one Father – the one in heaven. Nor are you to be called instructors, for you have on instructor, the Messiah. The greatest among you will be your servant. All who exalt themselves will be humbled, and all who humble themselves will be exalted”. (Mt 23:9-12)
Feminist scholars such as Fiorenza and Johnson have interpreted this and other gospel passages as highlighting Jesus’ anti-patriarchal views. By instructing his disciples to call no one by the name of Father here on earth, feminist scholars argue that Jesus was challenging the ideal of Father/Master at the pinnacle of the social hierarchy. If the Father in heaven was the only father that needed to be obeyed, then family structures with the male as the powerful head were thus subverted by Jesus. The view of society presented could therefore be interpreted as one based more on equality between the sexes and classes within society. This reversal of societal norms, with the humble exalted and those with power humbled, is also echoed in the words of Jesus at the conclusion of the passage.
Gospel accounts of Jesus’ conversations with women are many and varied. They include passages such as Jesus’ revelations to the Samaritan woman at the well (Jn 4:3-30), the faith of the woman who was healed of her bleeding after touching Jesus (Mt 9:20-22) and the strength of the Canaanite woman whose daughter was cured of demon possession by Jesus (Mt 15:22-28). The portrait of Jesus presented in these passages has led scholars such as Borg to conclude that “the stories of Jesus’ relationships to women involve ignoring or subverting the structures of patriarchy” (11). The women Jesus associated with were on the outer edges of society due to their status as foreigners, or state of purity in the case of the woman who was bleeding, or profession. As Elizabeth Johnson concluded;
“Through his ministry Jesus unleashes a hope, a vision, and a present experience of liberating relationships that women, the lowest of the low in any class, as well as men, savor as the antithesis of patriarchy…Although long neglected by the later tradition, these women emerge in feminist interpretation in significant ways. They befriend, economically support, advise, teach, and challenge Jesus, break bread with him and evangelize in his name” (12).
Thus by dialoguing with the memory of Jesus and the women he embraced, as contained in the scriptures, Feminist Liberation Christology can create new ways of seeing and interpreting the person of Jesus Christ.
Searching the Tradition
Throughout the history of the
Christian church theologians and Christian writers have portrayed
women as inferior to men. Authors have justified the lack
of status allocated to women in the church from the first century
through to the current day, where similar arguments are still
expounded to exclude women from the priesthood. The weapons
used by patriarchal systems within the church to subjugate women
have included the Bible itself and an emphasis on the gender
of Jesus. Feminist scholars seek to create a balance between
the sexes by analyzing the traditions that have survived in the
church through the centuries, thus creating an image of Jesus
Christ that is accessible to all members of the Church.
Elizabeth Clark, in Women in the Early Church, presents segments of early Christian writings by authors such as Augustine, Tertullian and John Chrysostom that highlight the negative perception of women that has been perpetuated in church tradition. In the late fourth and early fifth centuries Augustine presented his view of women in treatises such as Literal Commentary of Genesis and On Paradise. Through a reflection on the book of Genesis the first treatise expounded the theory that women were created specifically as helpers for men, and for reasons of procreation rather than companionship (13). Augustine’s ideas on the role of women were further expanded in On Paradise where Augustine reflected that God’s desire for Adam not to be alone led to the creation of woman, Eve. Adam was led to sin by Eve and thus redemption for women/Eve can only be achieved through the children bore in generations to come (14). The idea that androcentrism is part of a natural order is a common theme reflected in Augustine’s writings;
“Woman does not possess the image of God in herself, but only when taken together with the male who is her head, so that the whole substance is one image. But when she is assigned the role of the helpmate, a function that pertains to her alone, then she is not the image of God. But as far as the man is concerned, he is by himself alone the image of God just as fully and completely as when he and the woman are joined together into one. (15)
The famous, or infamous, view of women as the temptress was presented in the work of Tertullian whose misogynistic words reflected the viewpoint of many church fathers of the time;
“The curse of God on this sex of yours lives on even in our times. Guilty, you must bear its hardship. You are the devil’s gateway; you desecrated the fatal tree; you first betrayed the law of God; you softened up with your cajoling words the one against whom the devil could not prevail by force. All too easily you destroyed the image of God, Adam. You are the one who deserved death, and yet it was the Son of God who had to die.” (16)
Early Christian writers such as Augustine and Tertullian have influenced church theology that has sought to justify the subjugation of women. The pervasive view of woman as a “misbegotten man” (17) and essentially flawed that feminist theologians seek to address has therefore been manifested not only in theology but canon law and church practice that survives to the present day.
In searching the traditions, feminist
theologians have analysed church practices that reinforce the
inferior status of women. Feminist dialogue with church
traditions reveals that the gender of Jesus has been used as
a tool for denying women power and status in the church.
The basis for this suppression has been that the maleness of
Jesus reveals the maleness of God, and therefore God should be
represented through male images (18).
Thomas Aquinas’ argument that sacramental signs represent
what they signify by natural resemblance has been used by the
Vatican, in declarations such as Women in the Ministerial
Priesthood, to exclude women from presiding at the Eucharist
(19).
Thus the tradition of the male priesthood is actively critiqued
by feminist liberation scholars in the search for an image of
Jesus that is relevant to women, and men, in contemporary society.
Feminist dialogue with church tradition does not though seek to question the gender of Jesus, but supports the inclusivity that echoes in the words of the Gospels. The message of equality and justice that is evident in passages such as Galatians;
All of you are God’s children because of your faith in Christ Jesus. And when you were baptized, it was as though you had put on Christ in the same way you put on new clothes. Faith in Christ Jesus is what makes each of you equal with each other, whether you are a Jew or a Greek, a slave or a free person, a man or a woman.” (Gal 3:26-28)
are emphasized by feminist scholars in order to present a Christology that is relevant for all in society, regardless of gender. As Elizabeth Johnson summarized;
“The fact that Jesus of Nazareth was a man is not in question. His maleness is constitutive for his personal identity, part of the perfection and limitation of his historical reality, and as such it is to be respected. His sex is as intrinsic to his historical person as are his race, class, ethnic heritage, culture, his Jewish religious faith, his Galilean village roots, and so forth. The difficulty arises, rather, from the way this one particularity of sex, unlike the other historical particularities, is interpreted in sexist theology and practice.” (20)
Feminist hermeneutics has thus presented a picture of Jesus that resists patriarchal dominance and rejoices in the inclusivity that is evident in the gospel stories of Jesus. Thus the gender of the person known as Jesus has less emphasis in feminist theologians dialogue with christological traditions who seek to bring to light a vision of Christ as liberator for all.
Jesus in Contemporary Society
Creative dialogue with the memory of Christ
and christological traditions can create an image of Christ as
liberator that people from differing backgrounds and nations
can connect with on a personal level. Jesus’ concern
for liberating people from their poverty, suffering and sin is
emphasized by feminist liberation theologians in their search
for a Christ that is relevant to contemporary society, women
in particular.
Today’s society is vastly removed from the time in which Jesus lived and spoke the word of God, yet his message is still heard daily in churches around the world. Jesus’ message of love and salvation is timeless as is the image of a man who sought to bring hope to people on the margins of society. The image of Christ as liberator that emerges from a feminist critique of the gospels can be accessible and relevant in contemporary society. Feminist scholar Mary Catherine Hilkert, in her Experience and Tradition – can the center hold?, articulated the wealth of human experience that everyday people bring to an understanding of Jesus the Christ. She stated;
“Jesus embodied the God whose true name is compassion as he gathered women and men into an inclusive community of friends, as he lived and died in solidarity with the poor and rejected, as he interpreted his own religious tradition radically in light of what would truly serve human well-being, as he invited sinners and those excluded by social or religious boundaries to join at a table of thanksgiving and joy”. (21)
This view of a man who sought to radically change the world in which he lived is revealed by critical examination and study of the Gospels. Through a critique of the memory of Christ and church tradition Feminist Liberation scholars therefore present the story of Jesus in an egalitarian framework that reclaims the original inclusivity of Jesus’ message and calls for a discipleship of equals.
The driving force that has propelled the search for the historical Jesus over the centuries has been the question posed by Jesus himself in the Gospel of Mark - Who do you say I am? Not who do the church fathers, the theologians, the ministers the feminist scholars say I am, but who do you say I am. The critiques of scholars and theologians do not offer definitive answers on whom was the man known as Jesus the Christ. Instead they pose the questions and provide options for the place of Jesus in the world today. As Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza said in The Song of Questions;
“The one who knows not how to question she has no past, she has no present, she can have no future without knowing her mothers, without knowing her angers, without knowing her questions. (22)
The best christologies can therefore provide a framework through which the person of Jesus can be seen and interpreted. At the heart of the process though is the individual’s search for an image of Christ that speaks to them on a personal level, one that is informed by more than just the work of scholars and theologians. Karen Armstrong in her novel Through the Narrow Gate – A Nun’s Story articulated her personal revelation of who the man Jesus Christ was. Her message is one of remaining open to the word of God that was revealed through the revolutionary person of Jesus;
“My readings of the Gospels over the years had built Christ up for me as a dynamic figure. He stalked across my mind, vivid and challenging, driving the money lenders out of the Temple, inveighing angrily against the hypocrisy of His day, overturning all the conventions with the unpredictable nature of His love. He had mixed with prostitutes and sinners…and had frightened His hearers with His shattering commands. Leave all you have and come, follow me. Follow me.” (23)
The dynamic and revolutionary figure of Jesus the Christ has thus survived the centuries of critique and analysis to present an opportunity to enter into a relationship that is still relevant in the global society of today.
Footnotes
1. E.P. Sanders outlined biographical events in the life of Jesus in his work Jesus and Judaism. Cited by Marcus Borg in Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship (Pennsylvania:Trinity Press International, 1994) 36.
2. Regina Coll, Christianity and Feminism in Conversation (Mystic: Twenty-Third Publications, 1994) 50
3. Gerard Hall, Module Two: Jesus the Christ (ACU) 4
4. Ibid. 5
5. Ibid. 5
6. Ibid. 6
7. Ibid. 6
8. Ibid. 6
9. Examples of Jesus interacting with those considered impure or outside of society’s favour include;
10. An example of Jesus associating with a tax collector is found in Luke 19: 1-10 where Jesus eats with Zaccheus, who is seen as a rich tax collector and is also referred to as a sinner.
11. Borg, Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship, 27.
12. Johnson in Catherine Mowry La Cugna, Freeing Theology: The essentials of theology in feminist perspective (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993) 123
13. cited in Elizabeth A.Clark, Women in the Early Church (Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 1983) 68
14. Ibid. 74
15. Cited in Elizabeth Johnson, Consider Jesus: Waves of Renewal in Christology (New York: Crossroad, 1990) 101
16. Ibid. 101
17. Ibid. 101
18. Coll, Christianity and Feminism in Conversation, 56
19. Ibid. 56/57
20. Elizabeth Johnson in Catherine Mowry La Cugna, Freeing Theology, 118
21. Mary Catherine Hilkert in Catherine Mowry La Cugna, Freeing Theology, 60.
22. Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her (London: SCM, 1983)
23. Karen Armstrong, Through the Narrow Gate: A Nun’s Story (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995) 37.
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Vanessa Hall is presently studying in the Masters (Theology) program at McAuley Campus.
